Research work in biology “Pedigree of my family. My pedigree Pedigree by disease scheme

From old, yellowed photographs, beautiful and intelligent faces look at us - the faces of our ancestors. But already after two or three generations we forget who these people are, who they are to us, what they mean in our lives. In order not to lose the connection of generations, it is important to learn how to work with your pedigree correctly.

A small introduction: a useful habit is to write down

The memory of a family is not only photographs, this can be said about any carefully kept family little thing. An old coal samovar on a modern table looks ... nice. But it is a completely different matter if the history of the samovar is based on living stories of ancestors! Therefore, it makes sense to make a habit: write down the stories of grandparents, moms and dads, great-grandparents, uncles and aunts. Great-grandchildren may not have time to personally meet great-grandfathers. But the younger generation will still be able to recognize them if there are audio or video recordings in which relatives remain alive and healthy, talking about their lives.

We create the basis of the pedigree

This is how professional ethnographers record information in live communication. But how to create the very basis on which you can put on the clothes of oral stories, family traditions? Where can I get information, find out the exact dates, names and positions? The answer is simple - in the archives, and help can be found on social networks, where many groups of genealogy enthusiasts are active.

How to draw a family tree

Novice researchers may have difficulties associated with the graphically correct presentation of information. Therefore, today we will touch on this topic.

First of all, decide who will be the "end consumer" of information. From a psychological point of view, it is important to start introducing the child to the questions of his pedigree from early childhood, kindergarten and even toddler age, gradually changing the form of presenting information.

It is for a child of preschool or primary school age that the “artistic” version of the family tree is more suitable, when a real tree is drawn, real leaves on its branches. However, it is not necessary to draw - design options depend on individual tastes, creative preferences and imagination, you can also download a ready-made template from the network.

” But here comes the problem - most family tree diagrams are wrong!

For example, look at this diagram that we found on the Internet

Outwardly, it looks understandable to a child, but even a baby can ask a logical question: “Why am I the root, and the branches “mother” and “dad” grow out of me? In fact, it's the other way around!"

” Indeed, on the contrary! The general pattern of building genealogical trees is that the roots depict the first of the ancestors known to us, the most distant in time from us.

Family tree of Queen Victoria of England

” Another rule of scientific genealogy is that trees are built in the male line.

For example, the children of married women are depicted on the tree of their father, that is, the husband of this woman; they are not marked on the family tree of the parental family of this woman.

Important: it is on the male line that in our tradition all types of fixing genealogy are built: genealogical schemes, and generational paintings, and already described genealogical trees. The rest in the design of the family tree is a matter of creativity.

” On the family tree about each person, you should write the last name, first name, patronymic, date of birth and death, if the person is no longer alive.

How to build a family tree

The principle of constructing a genealogical scheme in general terms resembles working with a family tree. Creativity, of course, is less - there is no picturesqueness, artistry of a genealogical tree.

” But from the point of view of the spatial organization of information, there are important differences: a family tree is necessarily built from the bottom up, and the scheme can be ascending (bottom up), descending (top to bottom) and even lateral (left to right).

Generation painting

In my opinion, for an adult conducting genealogical research, the most convenient form of fixing new information is generational painting. For teenagers, the ability to make generational paintings can also become a bright addition to the course of Russian history.

So, generational painting is attractive precisely because it allows you to completely painlessly make additions about any person, without violating the structure and design. Its other advantage is that it is generational painting that allows you to record absolutely any available information about a person. Standardization in it concerns only the structure of the location of relatives.

Let me explain this with an example - a fragment of the generational painting of the Zakharovs.

I generation.

1. Kuzma Zakharov. A tradesman in the city of Vyazniki, Vladimir province.

II generation.

2 - 1. Alexander Kuzmich Zakharov *31.05.182[i]. Lived in Vyazniki, Vladimir province.

Zh. Evlampia Alekseevna Zakharova *1837

3 - 1. Lyubov Kuzminichna Zakharova *1824

III generation.

4 - 2. Ivan Aleksandrovich Zakharov *1.06.1857

A native of Vyazniki, Vladimir province, a tradesman. Ivan Alexandrovich's father's name was Alexander Kozmin (Kuzmich) Zakharov, he was a Vyaznikovsky tradesman. On July 24, 1883, Ivan Alexandrovich and Praskovya Nikolaevna entered into marriage, for both he was the first. The Sacrament was performed by Priest Konstantin Veselovsky with Deacon John Smirnov in the Trinity Church in Vyazniki, about which an act entry No. 21 was made in the register of births. Vyaznikovsky tradesmen Mikhail Pavlovich Figurnov and Alexander Pavlovich Davydov were guarantors for the groom, and Vyaznikovsky tradesman Nikolai Chirkov and Vyaznikovsky merchant Stepan Ivanovich Krasavtsev were the guarantors for the bride. In Tomsk, I.A. Zakharov was a confidant of the merchant Gadalov.

Zh. Zakharova (Vsekhvalnova) Praskovya Nikolaevna *1848 (or 1860, 1861) +15.03.1942

Philistine. The daughter of the Vyaznikovsky district of the village of Novoselki, the peasant Nikolai Yegorovich Vsekhvalnov. She was born in Vyazniki, Vladimir province, and got married there. Subsequently, between 1890 and January 1894, she and her husband moved to Tomsk. She was a housewife and raised children. In total, she had 12 children, but only 6 survived to adulthood. After 1917, she lived all the time with the family of her daughter Maria Ivanovna. She died of heart disease and old age in the city of Tomsk, about which there is entry No. 903 dated March 16, 1942.

5 - 2. Fedor Aleksandrovich Zakharov *11/18/1872 +6/25/1906

A native of Vyazniki, Vladimir province, a tradesman. He was the recipient at the baptism of his niece - Maria Ivanovna. Died June 25, 1906. He was buried on June 27, 1906.

6 - 2. Vasily Alexandrovich Zakharov *18.01.1863

A native of Vyazniki, Vladimir province. On July 25, 1871, he received a residence permit in Tomsk for a period of 11 months as a private of the Vyaznikovsky district regiment[x]. There is no information about his departure in the Alphabetical Book of Temporary Residents in the City of Tomsk.

7 - 2. Evdokia Alexandrovna Zakharova

[i] State Archive of the Vladimir Region, f. 391, op. 3, d.2, l. 177 rev. - 178

[x] State archive of the Tomsk region, f. 104, op. 1, d.1014, l. 39rev.

Roman numerals denote generations. Number one is the generation of the most distant known ancestor. Each person is assigned a serial number, denoted by an Arabic numeral. In this fragment, the serial numbers are brought up to seven. The second Arabic numeral after the dash is the ordinal number of the person's father. So, in this example, there is a persona:

6 - 2. Vasily Alexandrovich Zakharov *18.01.1863

He has serial number 6, is the son of Alexander Kuzmich Zakharov, who has serial number 2, was born on January 18, 1863. The source of this information is indicated below the footnotes. Wives do not have their serial numbers and are denoted by the letter "F". So, Zakharova (Vsekhvalnova) Praskovya Nikolaevna is the wife of Ivan Aleksandrovich Zakharov.

Appetite comes with eating. It is quite possible that, having taken up the compilation of a family tree or generational painting with your child this summer, you will want to ask your questions. Since 1994, there has been a public organization in Novosibirsk - the Novosibirsk Historical and Genealogical Society, which unites like-minded people and provides methodological assistance in compiling a genealogy. The society is represented by a group in the social network VKontakte

Human genetics. Features of genetic analysis in humans.

Human genetics studies the features of inheritance of traits in humans, hereditary diseases (medical genetics), the genetic structure of human populations. Human genetics is the theoretical basis of modern medicine and modern healthcare. Several thousand actually genetic diseases are known, which are almost 100% dependent on the genotype of the individual. The most terrible of them include: acid fibrosis of the pancreas, phenylketonuria, galactosemia, various forms of cretinism, hemoglobinopathies, as well as Down, Turner, Klinefelter syndromes. In addition, there are diseases that depend on both the genotype and the environment: ischemic disease, diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid diseases, gastric and duodenal ulcers, many oncological diseases, schizophrenia and other mental illnesses.

It is now firmly established that in the living world the laws of genetics are of a universal nature, and they are also valid for humans.

However, since a person is not only a biological, but also a social being, human genetics differs from the genetics of most organisms in a number of ways:

To study human inheritance, hybridological analysis (crossing method) is inapplicable; therefore, specific methods are used for genetic analysis: genealogical (pedigree analysis method), twin, as well as cytogenetic, biochemical, population and some other methods;

Humans are characterized by social characteristics that are not found in other organisms, such as temperament, complex communication systems based on speech, as well as mathematical, visual, musical and other abilities;

Thanks to public support, the survival and existence of people with obvious deviations from the norm (in the wild, such organisms are not viable) is possible.

genealogical method, or pedigree analysis method, is the most fundamental and universal method for studying human heredity and variability. It consists in the study of some normal or more often pathological trait in generations of people who are related to each other. The genealogical method is based on genealogy - the study of genealogies. The essence of the genealogical method is the compilation and analysis of pedigrees. The genealogical method corresponds to the main method of genetics - the hybridological method, which was first developed by G. Mendel. But unlike him, researchers do not select parental pairs for purposeful crossing, but only analyze in detail the results of the process of natural reproduction of people. One or several dozen families with numerous relatives of different generations are analyzed according to the trait under study. The use of a large number of families partly compensates for low human fertility and increases the number of descendants studied.

In medicine, this method is often called the clinical genealogical method, since various diseases or pathological signs are subjected to research.

The purpose of genealogical analysis is to establish genetic patterns. It allows solving many theoretical and applied problems. In terms of its capabilities, this method approaches the traditional hybridological method. In particular, it allows you to do the following:

determine whether the trait under study is inherited at all;

determine: what: dominant or recessive - is the trait being studied;

Determine: with which genes: nuclear or mitochondrial - the trait under study is associated;

determine: the gene under study is located on the autosome, X chromosome or Y chromosome.

identify the linkage of genes;

Evaluate the expressiveness of the studied trait;

determine the genotype of a member of the pedigree;

· to make a forecast: to estimate the probability of the birth of a child with one or another alternative manifestation of a trait in one or another member of the pedigree;

Evaluate the intensity of the mutation process;

identify the interaction of genes.

Technically, the genealogical method includes two consecutive steps:

1) collecting information about the members of the pedigree and compiling a verbal description of the pedigree; a verbal description of a pedigree indicating kinship and the presence or absence of the trait being studied is called a legend;

2) drawing up a graphic representation of the pedigree, its analysis and forecasting.

Drawing up a pedigree.

Genealogy begins with proband- a person who has consulted a doctor. Most often, the proband is a patient or a carrier of the trait under study. When compiling pedigrees, special symbols are used (Fig. 1).

Rice. 2. Symbols used in the compilation of graphic images of pedigrees.

1 - a male individual that does not have the studied trait

2 - a female individual that does not have the studied trait

3 - gender unknown

4 - marriage of a man and a woman

5 - closely related marriage

6 - children of one parental couple (siblings)

7 - female or male monozygotic twins

8 - a male with the trait under study,

9 - dizygotic twins of the same or different sex,

10-miscarriage

12 - stillborn,

13 - childless marriage

14 - heterozygous carrier of the recessive allele of the X chromosome (heterozygosity is established when analyzing the pedigree)

15 - early dead

16 - proband

17 - female individual with the studied trait

The graphic representation of a pedigree is a collection of symbols denoting males and females, some of which have a studied trait, while others do not have this trait. On the graphic image, all members of the pedigree are connected to each other by horizontal or vertical lines, reflecting family or marriage relations (husband - wife, parents - children). All individuals of one generation are located strictly in one row. Generations are indicated by Roman numerals from top to bottom; usually the numbers are placed to the left of the pedigree. All individuals of the same generation are numbered in Arabic numerals from left to right, sequentially. Siblings are listed in the pedigree in order of birth.

On fig. 3 shows a graphical representation of one of the pedigrees, which includes representatives of 4 generations.

Rice. 3. Graphic representation of the pedigree.

The graphic representation of the pedigrees greatly facilitates the subsequent analysis: determining the type of inheritance, the genotype of the proband, and the probability of the birth of a child with a different alternative value of the trait in the proband.

71. The main types of inheritance of traits in humans, their characteristics.

In humans, the following main types of inheritance are known:

BUT) Autosomal recessive inheritance:

2) if both parents have a trait, then all their children have this trait;

3) the trait is also found in children whose parents do not have the studied trait;

4) men and women with the studied trait occur with approximately the same frequency.

B) Autosomal dominant inheritance:

3) men and women with the trait being studied occur with approximately the same frequency.

AT) X-linked recessive inheritance:

1) the trait is relatively rare, not in every generation;

2) the trait occurs predominantly in men, and in their fathers the trait is usually absent, but it is present in maternal grandfathers (great-grandfathers);

3) in women, a sign occurs only when it is also present in their father.

G) Dominant X-linked inheritance:

1) the trait occurs frequently, in every generation;

2) the trait occurs in children in whom at least one of the parents has the studied trait;

3) the trait occurs in both men and women, but there are approximately twice as many women with this trait as men;

4) if a man has the trait under study, then all his daughters will have this trait, and all his sons will not have this trait.

D) Y-linked or hollandic inheritance:

1) the trait occurs frequently, in each generation;

2) the sign occurs only in men;

3) the trait is transmitted through the male line: from father to son, etc.

AND) Partially sex-linked inheritance: alleles of the gene under study are located in regions of the X-chromosome and Y-chromosome that are homologous to each other;

H) Cytoplasmic inheritance: the studied genes are in the DNA of mitochondria;

AND) Autosomal inheritance dependent on sex: autosomal genes manifest differently in the phenotype in women and men;

TO) Autosomal inheritance, sex-limited: the studied trait is formed only in individuals of the same sex.

Clinical and genealogical methodBased on the method proposed at the end of XIX
century F. Galton, is the compilation
pedigrees, based on the identification of all
members of the analyzed family, establishing
the degree of their relationship, and tracing that
or some other trait in a number of generations.

The method allows:

identify the hereditary nature of a trait
determine the type of inheritance
determine the zygosity of members of a pedigree
determine the features of gene interaction
establish linked inheritance and conduct
chromosome mapping
determine the penetrance of a gene
study patterns of mutation of individual genes
determine the carriage of a mutant gene by one or more
another family member
determine the likelihood of genetically determined
events
and
count
risk
inheritance
pathological gene (feature) with medical genetic
counseling

Disadvantages of the method

The impossibility of setting up an experiment
Low fertility
Slow generational change
A large number of gene linkage groups
The impossibility of standardizing the environment
In some cases, the inability to collect
necessary information (small children
families, loss of communication between generations and/or
relatives)

Method steps

1. Clinical examination.
2. Drawing up a pedigree.
3. Genetic analysis of the pedigree.

Clinical examination

The collection of anamnestic data is carried out according to a certain
scheme:
1. Information about the proband - anamnesis of the disease, including
initial signs and age of their manifestation, subsequent
course of the disease; if this is a child - information about the early
psychomotor and subsequent mental and physical
development.
2. Data on siblings (brothers and sisters) and parents of the proband -
age, healthy or sick, drawing an analogy with the disease
proband in case of illness.
3. Information about relatives on the mother's side (parents, their
children, grandchildren).
4. Information about relatives on the father's side (parents, their children,
grandchildren).

Drawing up a pedigree

Based on data from the first
stage, a graphic structure is drawn up
pedigree.
Proband - the person from whom
compilation of a pedigree.
Sibs are all children of the same married couple.
Half-sibs are brothers and sisters who have
common only one of the parents.

Rules for compiling a pedigree

1. Drawing up a pedigree begins with the proband. Brothers and
sisters (siblings) are in birth order on the left
to the right, starting with the oldest.
2. All members of the pedigree are arranged strictly by generations,
in one row.
3. Generations are indicated by Roman numerals to the left of
pedigree from top to bottom.
4. Arabic numerals number the offspring of one generation
(one row) from left to right. Thanks to this numbering
each family member has his own code (for example: I-1, I-2, II-2,
II-4, etc.)
5. The age of family members (pedigree) is indicated, in connection with
the fact that some diseases manifest themselves at different periods
life.
6. Personally examined members of the pedigree are noted

An example of a pedigree

Genetic analysis of the pedigree

1. Establishment of hereditary character
diseases.
2. Establishing the type of inheritance.
3. Identification of heterozygous carriers
mutant gene.
4. Establishment of the proband genotype.
5. Calculation of genetic risk for offspring.

Establishing the heredity of a trait/disease

If the symptom occurs several times in
different generations (has a family
character), it can be assumed that
the trait is hereditary.

Determining the type of trait inheritance:

Taken into account:
1. Whether in all generations and how often among members
pedigree meets a trait.
2. Is the frequency of the trait the same in both sexes and
if not, which gender is more common.
3. Children of what gender is the symptom transmitted from the patient
father and from a sick mother.
4. Are there families in which from sick parents
healthy children are born, or vice versa, from
healthy parents are born sick children.
5. What part of the offspring has an inherited trait
in families where one of the parents is sick.

Inheritance types:

autosomal dominant
autosomal recessive
X-linked dominant
X-linked recessive
Y-linked
Mitochondrial

autosomal dominant

Inheritance along the "vertical", i.e. sign
occurs in every generation without a pass
generations

Approximately half of the children of a parent with
feature also have this feature
Healthy family members usually have
healthy offspring

autosomal recessive

Inheritance along the "horizontal", i.e. carriers
traits belong to the same generation.
Usually skip generations
Both sexes are equally affected
Approximately a quarter of the children of a parent with
sign also
have this feature
Sick parents will have all children sick
The frequency of occurrence of a recessive trait
increases in the case of closely related
marriages.

X-linked dominant

The dominant mutant allele is localized in X
chromosome and can manifest as a homozygous
(HAHA), in heterozygous (HAHA), and in hemizygous
(hay) able
Both men and women are ill, but patients
twice as many women as men
The disease manifests itself in every generation
If a father is sick, then all his daughters will be sick, and
sons are healthy
If the mother is heterozygous, then the probability of birth
sick child 50%, regardless of gender
Healthy parents will have healthy children

X-linked recessive

Lack of trait transmission from father to son
The trait appears in the offspring of one
generation and does not appear in another
(inheritance "horizontally")
The symptom is much more common in individuals
male (women with X-linked
recessive trait can only be born in
families where the father has the trait and the mother is
heterozygous carrier)
Parents who do not have the trait may
be born children with a hereditary trait (if
mother is a heterozygous carrier)

penetrance and expressivity

Penetrance reflects the frequency of the phenotypic
manifestations of the genetic
information. Penetrance is expressed as a percentage
individuals in which the analyzed allele is phenotypically
appears. Penetrance can be complete (100%) and
incomplete (100%).
Phenotypic
manifestation
hereditary
information is characterized by an indicator that
called
expressiveness.
expressiveness
characterizes the severity of the trait and depends
both on the dose of the corresponding allele of the gene, and on
environmental factors.

Monogenic diseases characterized by a certain type of transmission in families. In order to establish the type of transmission, usually the first step is to obtain information about the patient's family history and summarize the details in the form of a pedigree - a graphical representation of the pedigree tree, using standard symbols. The extended family depicted in such diagrams is called the genus.

A member through which a family with a genetic disease first comes to the attention of a geneticist (i.e. for exclusion) - a proband if he or she is sick. A person who draws the doctor's attention to a family by consulting a geneticist is called a consultant; the counselor may be a sick or healthy relative of the proband. A pedigree can have more than one proband if it is taken into account through more than one source.

Brothers and sisters are called siblings, and the family of siblings forms a sibdom. Relatives are classified according to degrees: first degree (parents, siblings and offspring of the proband), second degree (grandparents and grandchildren, uncles and aunts, nephews and nieces and half-sibs), third degree (for example, cousins), and so on, in depending on the number of members of the pedigree between two relatives. The offspring of first cousins ​​are second cousins ​​and the child is a great nephew of his parents' cousins.

Couples who have one or more in common ancestors are considered consanguineous. If there is only one patient in the family, then he (or she) is an isolated case or, if it is determined that there is a new mutation, a sporadic case. When there is clear similarity in phenotype among different families with the same defect, a well-established pattern of inheritance in other families with the same disorder can be used as a basis for diagnosis and counseling, even if the patient represents an isolated case in the family. Thus, although many patients with genetic diseases do not have similarly ill relatives, it is possible to recognize the disease as genetic.

With many familial transmission of diseases depends on the ability of patients to reproduce. Geneticists use the term "fitness" as a measure of the effect of a disease on the ability to reproduce. Adaptability is defined as the number of offspring of a patient with a given disease surviving to reproductive age compared to a suitable control group. Adaptability is not a measure of physical or mental disability.

For example, when some disorder of the patient may have normal mental capacity and health, but the adaptability will be equal to O, since the disease interferes with normal reproduction. In other cases, a severe, disabling genetic disease may have normal adjustment because the onset of the disease occurs later than the normal age of reproduction.

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By tracing them, you can learn a lot about yourself and adjust your own destiny. Even for those who still think little about their own origin, this information will be useful at least at the level of determining genetic predispositions to diseases.

But collecting and correctly arranging information about your relatives is very difficult. In this article, we will talk about how to correctly compile a genealogical (pedigree) family tree with diagrams, examples and templates.

What is a family tree

A family tree is a conditional diagram that describes family ties within the same family. It is quite often depicted as a real tree. Next to the roots is usually the ancestor or the last descendant, for which the scheme is drawn up, and on the branches there are various lines of the genus.

In ancient times, the preservation of knowledge about one's origin was a direct necessity for everyone. Already in Neolithic times, people knew that closely related marriages lead to unviable children. Therefore, men took wives for themselves in neighboring villages, clans and tribes. However, sometimes it was required to preserve some qualities within the line, and then people chose brides and grooms from a limited circle. But in both the first and second cases, the knowledge of one's ancestors was mandatory.

Blood (blood relationship) in the past meant not only the presence of family ties, but also a certain psycho-emotional community, and in relation to representatives of the same family, the range of expectations from people was quite close.

This behavior is justified. Have you noticed that there are families, representatives of different lines and generations of which themselves choose close directions of development. There are families in which everyone is connected with art, and there are those where, for generations, every second person has a penchant for engineering. And the point here is not only in education, but also in the features of the functioning of the body. Genetic predisposition manifests itself not only in diseases, but also in the talents of representatives of the related line.

The system of childbirth was also supported by the social structure. Most societies go through stages first of the caste, then the estate, then the class system. And marriages in them are usually arranged within their social circle.

The family history can shed light on many personal values. A lot of things are laid in a person at a very early age on the example of the relationship of his parents and their relatives: behavior patterns, thinking structure, habits and words. But inheritance is not always direct. The study of the history of the family and the reconstruction of the family tree contributes to the self-identification of the individual, allows you to realize your personal foundations. This is beneficial for both the individual and the family as a whole. The very process of collecting information and processing it will be useful for establishing contact between relatives.

There are several methods for compiling a family tree:

• Ascending. Here the chain is built in the direction from the descendant to the ancestors. The schema compiler acts as the initial element. The method is convenient for those who have just started studying their family. The compiler has information mainly about his closest relatives: parents, grandfathers, grandmothers, etc. - and gradually delves into the past.

• Downward. In this case, the chain has the opposite direction. One ancestor (or spouse) acts as the beginning. For such a construction, you need to have sufficiently extensive information about your relatives.

When compiling a family tree, you need to take into account the lines of inheritance. They are of two types:

• Straight branch. The chain includes you, your parents, their parents, etc.

• Side branch. It takes into account your brothers and nephews, grandparents' brothers and sisters, great-grandparents, etc.

These schemes - ascending and descending with straight and lateral branches - can be compiled both as a mixed one: for both men and women of a kind, and for tracking inheritance only by the kind of father or mother.

The family tree can be formatted as follows:

The branching interposition we are used to, which is often supplemented with a tree pattern. Suitable for designing genealogical charts of any complexity.

• You will draw your child's ascending family tree in this style.

• Make a wonderful gift for a distant relative by depicting a common ancestor as the initial figure on the diagram and building a descending system of connections from all cousins ​​and second cousins ​​from him.

• Make a drawing in the form of an hourglass. This option is suitable for older relatives: grandfathers or great-grandfathers. Take them as key figures and make a genealogical family tree of these members of your family, combining descending and ascending diagrams in the figure - parents and descendants.

The "butterfly" scheme is inherently quite close to the "clock" option. Her starting point is the spouses, on both sides of them are the ascending family trees of their parents, and at the bottom is the descending one.

There is another option for building a structure. It is not common in Russia, but allows you to create a fairly complete description of family ties. This is the so-called circular table. It is also capable of accommodating an ascending and descending description of the genus.

• For simple schemes, you can take as a basis a quarter of a circle - the "fan" scheme.

• There is an option for designing an ascending or descending structure in the form of concentrated circles in which ancestors or descendants are entered.

• Or, the circle can be divided and a genealogical tree of the genus can be compiled, combining both directions of the family in a similar way to the clock pattern.

Any of the described options can be supplemented with photographs and notes.

How to make a genealogical tree of a family on your own

Research is better to start with the family archive. See if you still have old photographs and official documents of your older relatives. Documents will be especially useful: marriage or birth certificates, diplomas, certificates, work books, since it is with their help that it is easiest to start searching in the archive. All papers and photographs should be scanned, saved somewhere in digital format and used in the future. And return the originals to their place so as not to lose these important evidence.

The next important step is to interview relatives. And since relatives are not eternal, it is not worth delaying with him. In order not to overwork the elderly and not get confused yourself, it is important to outline the range of issues in advance. For example, when we are compiling a family tree of a family, we should be interested in information:

• When and where were born certain relatives.
• Where and when did they work?
• Time and place of study.
• Who and when did you marry.
• How many children did they have, their names and dates of birth.
• If relatives died, it is worth knowing when and where it happened.

As you can see, from the point of view of further searches, the most important information from the list is the place and time of certain events. Knowing them, you can contact the archives for documents.

But from the point of view of the family, it is much more important to hear stories about the life of your loved ones. Each family keeps its traditions, in each there was something worthy of the memory of generations. Therefore, do not neglect long conversations about the past.

When collecting oral information, it is worth using a voice recorder so as not to miss a single detail.

It is important to structure all the information received correctly and quickly, otherwise you will simply get confused in the intricacies of your family ties. You can store information on paper in folders related to each family line. Or create a separate folder on your computer where you will place files about each of the relatives.

Some people study their ancestry for years, gradually deepening their knowledge of their relatives in direct and indirect lines.

But you can make the initial stages of the process faster, invite your family to participate with you in this important matter. If several people, each in their own line, make a list of the next of kin with names, photographs and dates, and then combine all this information into a single scheme, you can get a family tree several generations deep in just a few months. In addition, such a decision will help to establish communication between the individual branches of the family.

Services and programs that help build a family tree

Gathering information about relatives is a difficult task. Simply because with each generation, the number of people to collect information about will increase exponentially. Even when using the ascending scheme, taking into account only direct branches, by the seventh generation you will have 126 ancestors.

Registration and storage of all this information using paper media is inconvenient. It is much easier to use electronic databases. You can create the necessary files yourself in Excel or Access. Or use specialized programs that are initially configured in such a way as to make it as easy as possible to compose information in your family, display and display it in a beautiful and understandable form.

There are many Internet services on pedigree topics. They will correctly compile your family tree, help with finding information about relatives, and provide design samples.

• Some of them provide an opportunity to create a diagram of your kind online. On them, after free registration, you need to enter information about each relative, indicate his family ties, provide photos, and the service itself will graphically build the necessary structure.

• There are more professional sites with more settings. They automatically conduct additional analysis of the surname and even look for information in the archives.

A convenient solution, but, unfortunately, such services exist for a relatively short time, usually about 5 years, after which you will most likely lose access to the entered information.

• For deeper work, it is better to use special programs that work independently of the Internet. They are paid and free. The latter have more limited functionality.

• Or contact a special company involved in genealogy, with its help, find information about your family ties, and arrange them beautifully in a family tree, or